Solar Energy, National Security, and Sustainable Development: Technological Transformations, Legal Regulation, and Challenges to Energy Sovereignty

Abstract

The rapid scaling of solar photovoltaic technologies and the attainment of grid parity have significantly reshaped the global energy landscape, turning solar generation from an economic alternative into a driver of national security and sustainable development. The article systematizes the key drivers of contemporary photovoltaics, including tandem perovskite architectures, bifacial modules, battery energy storage systems (BESS), and artificial intelligence tools for forecasting and grid operation. It assesses them through the lens of current geo-economics and hybrid threats. The study elucidates the structural conflict between centralized carbon-intensive generation and the emerging paradigm of distributed, digitally managed capacities, emphasizing that technological availability alone does not deliver security outcomes without appropriate institutional arrangements. The analysis focuses on the legal and regulatory architecture that simultaneously enables accelerated deployment and the protection of critical infrastructure. It examines grid connection and permitting regimes, corporate power purchase agreement (PPA) mechanisms, foreign investment screening, cybersecurity requirements for cyber-physical energy systems, and supply chain security requirements for critical components and software. The article argues that energy sovereignty requires a combination of technological autonomy and legal certainty, supported by supply chain diversification, enforceable security criteria, and the development of adaptive regulatory models that can respond to dynamic risks while preserving investment predictability and promoting the pursuit of the public interest.