Legal liability for environmental damage caused by armed conflict: international and national legal aspects (the case of Ukraine)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.34625/issn.2183-2705(39.1)2026.ic-11Keywords:
Environmental protection; armed conflict; environmental security; legal liability; environmental damage; crimes against the environmentAbstract
Since the onset of the full-scale invasion of Ukraine, the Russian Federation has employed, and continues to use, various prohibited methods of warfare. The challenge of ensuring environmental protection in current conditions of globalisation lies in the international community's persistent neglect of ecological security. There is a need to find the most effective comprehensive interstate approach to enhancing legal accountability for environmental damage and improving mechanisms for responding to armed conflicts. The issue of holding the Russian Federation legally accountable for environmental crimes committed on the territory of Ukraine is of critical importance. It requires thorough legal analysis and practical solutions, especially in light of often inconsistent judicial practices that vary significantly across jurisdictions. International law does not address the inevitability of legal liability for environmental harm caused during armed conflict. An essential condition for the documentation of environmental crimes is the involvement of independent, internationally certified experts who can apply modern methodologies for evidence collection and damage assessment, thereby ensuring the verification and credibility of the collected data. The full recovery of Ukraine's economy and infrastructure will only be possible after the cessation of hostilities and the liberation of the occupied territories.
References
ATAMANOVA, Yuliia, TSIRAT, Hennadii. State Immunity and New Challenges to International Law [online]. LCF Law Group. 13.07.22. Available from: https://lcf.ua/thought-leadership/international-arbitration/sudovij-imunitet-derzhavi-ta-novi-vikliki-pered-mizhnarodnim-pravom [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
BOTHE, Michael, BRUCH, Carl, DIAMOND, Jordan, JENSEN, David. International Law Protecting the Environment during Armed Conflict: Gaps and Opportunities [online]. International Review of the Red Cross. Vol. 92, no. 879, 2010, 569–592. Available from: doi: https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/irrc-879-bothe-bruch-diamond-jensen.pdf [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
BRENT, Kerryn Anne. The Certain Activities Case: What Implications for the No-Harm Rule? [online]. Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law. Vol. 20, no. 12017, 2017, 28–56. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.4337/apjel.2017.01.02 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
BUZAN, Barry, FALKNER, Robert. Great Powers and Environmental Responsibilities: A Conceptual Framework [online]. In: FALKNER, Robert and BUZAN, Barry, (eds.) Great Powers, Climate Change, and Global Environmental Responsibilities. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022. 14 – 48. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198866022.003.0002 [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
CHURILOVA, Tetiana, STRELNYK, Viktoriia. Problems of Compensation for Environmental Damage to Ukraine Caused by the Armed Aggression of the Russian Federation [online]. Environmental Law. no. 3–4, 2022, 91–95. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.37687/2413-7189.2022.3-4-4.18 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
DUGARD, John. The Choice Before Us: International Law or a Rules-Based International Order? [online]. Leiden Journal of International Law. Vol.36, no.2, 2023, 223–232. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0922156523000043 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
HARRISON, Andrea. Review of Underground Warfare, by D. Richemond-Barak [online]. The American Journal of International Law. Vol.114, no.1, 2020, 178–183. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26891044 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
HIGHER ATTESTATION COMMISSION OF UKRAINE. Letter No. 02-72-05/311 dated 2 February 2009 regarding law enforcement practice [online]. Available from: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/rada/show/v_311330-09#Text [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
HOMER-DIXON, Thomas F. Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict: Evidence from Cases. [online]. International Security. Vol.19, no.1, 1994, 5–40. Available from: https://www.clisec.uni-hamburg.de/en/pdf/data/homer-dixon-1994-environmental-scarcities.pdf [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
HULME, Karen. War Torn Environment: Interpreting the Legal Threshold. Leiden [The Netherlands]: Brill | Nijhoff, 2004. ISBN: 978-90-04-13848-3.
IDE, Tobias. The Dark Side of Environmental Peacebuilding [online]. World Development. Vol. 127, 2020, Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104777 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS. Guidelines on the Protection of the Natural Environment in Armed Conflict: Rules and Recommendations Relating to the Protection of the Natural Environment under International Humanitarian Law, with Commentary. [online]. Geneva: ICRC, September 2020. Available from: https://www.icrc.org/sites/default/files/document_new/file_list/guidelines_on_the_protection_of_the_natural_environment_in_armed_conflict_advance-copy.pdf [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977 [online]. Available from: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/995_199#Text [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment of 16 December 2015 [online]. ICJ Reports, 2015. Available from: https://www.icj-cij.org/case/150 [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) – Compensation, Judgment of 2 February 2018 [online]. ICJ Reports, 2018. Available from: https://www.icj-cij.org/node/105541 [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons: Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996. In: Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders. 1996, pp. 241–242.
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT. Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, Case No. ICC-01/12-01/15, Reparations Order, 17 August 2017 [online]. Trial Chamber VIII. The Hague: International Criminal Court, 2017. Available from: https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/CourtRecords/0902ebd1803eb94b.pdf [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION. Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, with Commentaries. [online]. In: Yearbook of the International Law Commission. Vol.II, Part Two, A/56/10. 2001. Available from: https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/commentaries/9_6_2001.pdf [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION. Draft Articles on the Effects of Armed Conflicts on Treaties, with Commentaries 2011 [online]. In: Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2011, Vol.II, Part Two. Available from: http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/commentaries/1_10_2011.pdf [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION. Draft Principles on Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts [online]. United Nations, 2022. (A/77/10, Chapter VI, Annex І. Available from: https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft_articles/8_7_2022.pdf [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE LAW OF THE SEA. Request for Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission, Advisory Opinion [online]. 2 April 2015. ITLOS Reports, 2015. Available from: https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/cases/case_no.21/advisory_opinion_published/2015_21-advop-E.pdf [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE LAW OF THE SEA. Request for an Advisory Opinion submitted by the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law, Advisory Opinion [online]. 21 May 2024. ITLOS Reports, 2024. Available from: https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/cases/31/Advisory_Opinion/C31_Adv_Op_21.05.2024_orig.pdf [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
IVANETS, Ivan. The Impact of European Union's Law and Judicial Practice on the Application of the Principles of Protection of Violated Civil Rights in the Ukrainian Judicial Proceedings [online]. Revista Jurídica Portucalense, 2024, 450–469. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.34625/issn.2183-2705(36)2024.ic-20 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
KONG, Lingjie, ZHAO, Yuqing. Remedying the Environmental Impacts of War: Challenges and Perspectives for Full Reparation [online]. International Review of the Red Cross. Vol. 105, no.924, 2023, 1441–1462. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383123000280 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
KOOPMAN, Sara, DALBY, Simon, MEGORAN, Nick, SHARP, Jo, KEARNS, Gerry, SQUIRE, Rachael, JEFFREY, Alex, SQUIRE, Vicki, TOAL, Gerard. Critical Geopolitics/critical geopolitics 25 years on. [online]. Political Geography. 90. Article 102421, 2021. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102421 [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
KOSTYTSKYI, Vasyl, KOSTYTSKA, Iryna, MYKITYUK, Mykola and SUKHODOLSKA, Anastasiia. On the issue of legal responsibility for criminal encroachment on the constitutional right to a safe environment during the Russian military aggression in Ukraine [online]. Environmental Law, no. 3-4, 2022. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.37687/2413-7189.2022.3-4-4.5 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
KRAMPE, Florian, KREUTZ, Joakim and IDE Tobias. Armed Conflict Causes Long-Lasting Environmental Harms [online]. Environment and Security, March 2025, vol. 0, no. 0. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/27538796251323739 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
KUZNETSOVA, Maryna, STRELNYK, Viktoriia, BATURYNETS, Bohdan, KLESHCHENKO, Oleksii. The Issue of Legal Responsibility of the Russian Federation for Offences Committed through Armed Aggression [online]. Legal Scientific Electronic Journal. No. 6, 2023, 620–622. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.32782/2524-0374/2023-6/144 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
MOURATIDI, Yiokasti. You Say Precautions, I Say Prevention: Towards the Systemic Integration of International Humanitarian Law and International Environmental Law. In: KRIEGER, Heike, KALMANOVITZ, Pablo, LIEBLICH, Eliav, PANTAZOPOULOS, Stavros Evdokimos(eds). Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law. Vol.25. The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2024. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-619-2_1
OVCHYNNYKOVA, Yuliia. Russia must be held accountable and pay compensation to Ukraine for environmental crimes [online]. Ukrainska Pravda. Life section, 6 March 2023. Available from: https://life.pravda.com.ua/columns/2023/03/06/253191/ [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
PANIGAJ, Juraj, BERNІKOVА, Eva. Ecocide – a new crime under international law? [online]. Juridical Tribune. V.13, Iss.1, March 2023. Available from: http://tribunajuridica.eu/arhiva/An13v1/1.%20Panigaj,%20Bernikova.pdf [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
PARLIAMENTARY ASSEMBLY OF THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE (PACE). Resolution of 27 April 2022: Europe Has Come to Realize the Threat Posed by Russia to the Whole of European Civilization [online]. Available from: https://r2p.org.ua/rezolyucziya-parye/ [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
RIEZNIKOVA, Viktoriia, KOSTYASHKIN, Ivan, LAHOIDA, Tetiana, KRAVETS, Iryna & BOIKO, Antonina. Ensuring property rights under martial law [online]. Revista Jurídica Portucalense, NoSpecial, 2023, 253–275. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.34625/issn.2183-2705(ne)2023.ic-13 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
RISHABH, Rishika. Responsibility v. Sovereignty: Transboundary Environmental Harm [online]. International Journal of Law, Management and Humanities. Vol. 4, no. 2, 2021, 598–606. Available from: doi: http://doi.one/10.1732/IJLMH.26106 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
SMITH, Tara. The Protection of the Environment and Natural Resources in Armed Conflict [online]. In: SAYAPIN, Sergey, ATADJANOV, Rustam, KADAM, Umech, KEMP, Gerhard, ZAMBRANA-TEVAR, Nicolas, QUENIVET, Noëlle (eds). International Conflict and Security Law. The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2022. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-515-7_20 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
STRELNYK, Viktoriia, MYRONENKO, Tetiana, CHURILOVA, Tetiana, HRES, Nataliia. Legal Support of Industrial Accident Prevention [online]. Journal of Advanced Research in Law and Economics. Vol.9, no.7(45), 2019, Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.14505/jarle.v10.7(45).23 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
STRELNYK, Viktoriia. The Issue of Legal Responsibility of the Russian Federation for Offences in the Field of Environmental Protection: International Legal Aspect [online]. In: Collective monograph. Riga: Baltija Publishing, 2023, 254–261. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.30525/978-9934-26-331-6-30 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
UKRINFORM. European Parliament Adopted Decision on Establishment of Tribunal for Crime of Aggression against Ukraine [online]. 19.01.2023 13:26. Available from: https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-polytics/3655298-evroparlament-uhvaliv-risenna-pro-stvorenna-tribunalu-za-zlocin-agresii-proti-ukraini.html [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 3 June 1992 [online]. In: Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 3–14 June 1992), Volume I: Resolutions Adopted by the Conference (A/CONF.151/26/Vol.I). Available from: https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT ASSEMBLY. Resolution on Mitigating Impacts and Reducing Environmental Pollution in Areas Affected by Armed Conflicts and Terrorism, 6 December 2017, Nairobi [online]. Available from: https://www.informea.org/en/decision/pollution-mitigation-and-control-areas-affected-armed-conflict-or-terrorism [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY. Protection of the environment in times of armed conflict: Resolution 47/37. 25 November 1992. [online]. Available from: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/158808?v=pdf [Accessed: 03 November 2025].
UNITED NATIONS. Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, 10 October 1980. In: Report of the United Nations Conference on Certain Conventional Weapons [online] (Geneva, 10 October 1980) (A/CONF.151/26/Vol.I). Available from: https://www.un.org/disarmament/the-convention-on-certain-conventional-weapons [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
UNITED NATIONS. Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD) [online]. Geneva, 10 December 1976. In: United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1108, p. 151. Available from: https://disarmament.unoda.org/enmod/ [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
UNITED NATIONS. International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 12 September 2002. Law No. 149-IV (Ukraine) [online]. Available from: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/995_518#Text [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
UNITED NATIONS. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 21 December 1965 [online]. Available from: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/995_105#Text [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
VAN STEENBERGHE, Raphaël. International Environmental Law as a Means for Enhancing the Protection of the Environment in Warfare: A Critical Assessment of Scholarly Theoretical Frameworks [online]. International Review of the Red Cross. Vol. 105, no. 924, 2023, 1568–1599. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383123000358 [Accessed: 26 June 2025].
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Viktoriia STRELNYK, Nataliia VOLCHENKO, Nataliia BONDAR, Maryna KUZNETSOVA
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who published in the journal agree to the following terms:
- The Authors grant the Journal the right of first publication, and other non-exclusive publishing rights, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which allows the sharing of work with recognition of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to take on additional contracts separately, non-exclusive distribution of the version of the paper published in this journal (ex .: publish in an institutional repository or as a chapter in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post and distribute their work online (eg .: in institutional repositories or on their website) at any point before or during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as increase the impact and the citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
RJP does not apply submission, publication or any other fees of any nature. Its articles are open access, with the goal of disseminating scientific knowledge and the debate of legal topics in the area of Legal Sciences.
